Longitudinal transmission of risk behaviors between mothers, fathers, and adolescents.

Despite the critical need to understand the processes and predictors behind adolescent substance use and risk behaviors, research has focused primarily on individual predictors rather than family dynamics, and mothers rather than fathers. Family systems theory would suggest that children are impacted both directly by parents' behavior (e.g., modeling risk behaviors) and indirectly by their parents' behaviors toward one another (e.g., coparenting) and their relationships with their parents (mother-child and father-child closeness). This article investigates links between parental substance use at child age 9 and children's substance use and delinquent behaviors at age 15, and relational mediators of these associations (coparenting, parent-child closeness). Data from 2,453 mothers, fathers, and children from the Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study (Reichman et al., 2001) were analyzed. Fathers' drug and alcohol use at child age 9 were not directly associated with adolescent risk behaviors at age 15, but his drug use was associated with adolescent substance use indirectly via its influence on maternal coparenting and thereafter father-child closeness. Mothers' alcohol and drug use were both directly associated with later adolescent drug use and delinquency, and indirectly with delinquency via their associations with fathers' coparenting and thereafter mother-child closeness. Implications of the findings for intervention and prevention as well as future research are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Feasibility, Acceptability, and Preliminary Outcomes of a Father-Focused Childhood Obesity Prevention Program for Low-Income Families with Preschool-Age Children.

Background: Few childhood obesity prevention interventions have focused exclusively on fathers, particularly in low-income families. The objectives of this study were to determine feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary outcomes of a father-focused childhood obesity prevention program for low-income families with preschool children (ages 3-5 years old). Methods: Father-child pairs (n = 45) enrolled in a community-based intervention in a Northeastern US state and were assigned within groups to intervention (n = 31) or a delayed comparison group (n = 14). The 8-week (2 h/week) program included nutrition, cooking, and parent education. Feasibility (enrollment, retention, and attendance) and acceptability (quality and value of program) of the program were assessed. Pre/Post measures included the Meals in our Household, Comprehensive Feeding Practices, Healthy Kids, and the Cooking Matters questionnaires. T-tests were conducted and Hedge's g was calculated to estimate effect sizes. Significance was set at p ≤ 0.10. Results: Results indicated feasibility and acceptability of the program for intervention fathers, but recruitment and retention of comparison fathers proved challenging. Small to medium effect sizes were detected for improvements in fathers' feeding pressure (g = 0.48, p = 0.005), confidence in cooking skills (g = 0.25, p = 0.09), ability to cook healthy foods on a budget (g = 0.33, p = 0.10), and frequency that fathers cooked dinner (g = 0.15, p = 0.06). There was a large effect size detected in the increase of green salad consumption (g = 0.75, p = 0.01) by fathers and a small effect size for frequency of children eating vegetables (g = 0.13, p = 0.07). Conclusions: While results are promising, further research should evaluate impact of a larger scale father-focused intervention on diet and obesity risk. The project was registered on ClinicalTrials.gov as NCT03071419.

COVID-19 and the relationships and involvement of nonresident fathers.

Objective: To support nonresident fathers in maintaining involvement and relationships with their children during the COVID-19 pandemic, we must understand how such fathers have been impacted thus far by the pandemic. Background: All families have been impacted by the pandemic, but fathers who do not reside with their children are particularly likely to be negatively impacted. Social distancing, restrictions on travel, job loss/economic downturn, family court closures, and numerous other effects of the COVID-19 crisis impact the ability of nonresident fathers to maintain relationships and involvement with their children. Method: The current study analyzed retrospective data from 373 nonresident U.S. fathers to assess perceived parenting and coparenting changes during the pandemic, as well as whether coparenting relationships and mental health were associated with their involvement and relationships with their children. Results: On average, fathers' involvement, father-child relationship quality, and coparenting support declined, but wide variability also existed, with a substantial minority of fathers reporting increased involvement. Coparenting support was positively associated with current levels of involvement and relationship quality as well as changes to both since the pandemic, but mental health was inconsistently associated with outcomes. Conclusion and Implications: To keep these average declines from becoming permanent, future research should investigate what factors foster higher involvement and improved relationships. Practitioners should offer additional support to nonresident fathers to promote their involvement and relationships in ways compatible with evolving restrictions.

A pilot examination of the inter-rater reliability of the 18-item Household Food Security Module between cohabiting mothers and fathers.

Food insecurity, defined as the inability to access sufficient food for an active, healthy life, affects 11.1% of the US population and is primarily assessed using the United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA) 18-item Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM). The HFSSM is a self-report measure presumed to represent all household members, but it is unknown if cohabiting parents report food security differently. This pilot study aimed to determine (i) the inter-rater reliability of the HFSSM; (ii) the direction of any difference between responses to the HFSSM; and (iii) the item-level response similarities and differences among mothers and fathers of young children. Twenty-five pairs of low-income, food-insecure cohabiting parents of 2.5- to 10-year-old children participated in cognitive interviews assessing their level of food security using the USDA's HFSSM and completed related questionnaires. Intraclass correlations were computed to compare the responses of each dyad on the HFSSM overall and by item. Results revealed that overall report of food security was significantly but weakly correlated (r = .40, p = .02) within dyads. The majority of fathers (60%) reported higher food security scores on the HFSSM than their respective female partners. Furthermore, item-level intraclass correlations revealed that some HFSSM questions had poor reliability between cohabiting parents. This research identifies that a potential shortcoming of the HFSSM is the under-reporting of food insecurity by fathers compared with mothers within the household. These findings have implications for the utility of this measure used in national monitoring of the nation's food security.

Psychological maladjustment mediates the link between remembrances of parental rejection in childhood and loneliness in adulthood: A cross-cultural comparative study.

Drawing stimulus from interpersonal acceptance-rejection theory, this multicultural study examined relations between men's versus women's remembrances of maternal and paternal acceptance-rejection in childhood and their current level of loneliness, as mediated by adults' self-reported psychological maladjustment. Adults (N = 899) from five nations (Iraq, Italy, the Netherlands, Pakistan, and the United States) responded to the Adult version of the Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire-short form for mothers and fathers, the Adult version of the Personality Assessment Questionnaire-short form, and the Interpersonal Acceptance-Rejection Loneliness Scale. Adults' remembrances of maternal and paternal rejection in childhood significantly and independently predicted feelings of loneliness but remembered paternal rejection was more strongly related to these feelings than were remembrances of maternal rejection. Psychological maladjustment fully mediated the effect of remembered maternal rejection but only partially mediated the effect of remembered paternal rejection on loneliness. There were no significant differences in these results across the five countries or genders. Overall, the results suggest that adults' remembrances of parental rejection in childhood-along with the theoretically expected development of psychological maladjustment-are likely to be associated panculturally with the experience of loneliness in adulthood.

Recruitment, Engagement, and Retention of Fathers in Nutrition Education and Obesity Research.

This article provides a perspective about recruiting, engaging, and retaining fathers in research and programming related to nutrition education and childhood obesity prevention. Recent research emphasizes the importance of fathers in childhood obesity prevention, and although father-friendly approaches can emulate other underserved populations, some researchers have acknowledged that differences may exist. Family sciences- related and nutritional sciences-related literature is summarized to provide guidance for nutrition and obesity scholars. Best practices may vary by the type of study and father characteristics; and the venues, content, structure, timing, and approach of research and interventions may need to be tailored for fathers.

Father Involvement and Father-Child Relationship Quality: An Intergenerational Perspective.

OBJECTIVE: The present study looks at predictors that may be associated with father-child relationship quality and whether relationship quality appears to be transmitted across generations. DESIGN: This study includes 2,970 U.S. families who participated in the Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study. Structural equation modeling was used to assess associations between fathers' relationship with paternal grandfathers (PGF) during their own childhood and when their own children are 1 year old, father involvement at age 1, and child reports of father-child relationship quality at age 9. RESULTS: PGF involvement with fathers during childhood was positively associated with the father-PGF relationship at child age 1, which in turn was associated with greater father involvement at age 1. More father involvement at age 1 was associated with child reports of better father-child relationships at age 9. The pathways from PGF involvement during fathers' childhood and father-PGF relationships at age 1 to father-child relationship quality at age 9 were fully mediated by father involvement at age 1. CONCLUSIONS: Patterns of father involvement and the quality of father-child relationships tend to be passed down across generations. To ensure active, positive father involvement and its associated benefits for children, parenting interventions should focus promoting positive fathering behaviors to promote positive relationships with children in their own and future generations.

How Are Fathers' Demographic Characteristics Related to Preschool-Age Children's Weight and Obesity Risk Factors?

Fathers (n = 149) of preschool children were interviewed using the Child Feeding, Role of the Father (ROF), and ROF at Mealtimes (ROFM) questionnaires to determine whether fathers' demographic characteristics are associated with child overweight. Low-income was associated with higher pressure to eat (p = .006) and perceived their child as higher weight (p = .001). Higher education level was associated with lower ROF (p = .018) and ROFM (p = .002) and higher child diet quality (p = .002). Father's BMI was positively associated with ROFM (p = .008). Certain fathers may be important targets in childhood obesity prevention programs.

Longitudinal Influence of Paternal Distress on Children's Representations of Fathers, Family Cohesion, and Family Conflict.

A parent's distress is known to color children's experiences of their families. Studies, however, have rarely focused on the levels of distress experienced by fathers, and in particular, as they affect the emotional experiences of their children. We examine the impact that fathers' experience of distress throughout their children's early years has on children's emerging narrative representations of father-child relationships and of family conflict and cohesion. In this longitudinal investigation, fathers of young children reported their distress on two occasions in relation to self, the marital relationship, and the family climate. Fathers also concurrently reported on their children's temperament, specifically negative emotionality. Children responded to story stem beginnings about challenging situations in the family and their narratives were scored for dysregulated negative-disciplinary and positive parental behaviors of fathers, family conflict themes, and family harmony themes. It was hypothesized that children of more distressed fathers would represent greater dysregulated fathering and higher levels of family conflict, and lower levels of positive fathering and family harmony than children of less distressed fathers. Further, the study examined whether this effect was mediated through the fathers' reports of their children's negative emotionality. Results partially supported the hypothesized direct and indirect effects. Children's narratives of negative-disciplinary fathering and family conflict were more common in boys when fathers reported greater distress, and temperament ratings fully mediated this effect. However, their narratives of positive fathering and family harmony were not significantly affected. That positive family features were preserved in children's narratives even in the face of greater father distress suggests that families may be able to build resilience to internalized distress through these positive narrative features.

Investigating the Relationship of Body Mass Index, Diet Quality, and Physical Activity Level between Fathers and Their Preschool-Aged Children.

BACKGROUND: Diet quality and physical activity are two important factors in determining a child's risk for obesity. In early childhood, parents may serve as role models for these behaviors. However, few studies have examined associations of a father's body mass index (BMI), dietary intake, and physical activity with his preschool-aged child. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between fathers' and children's body weight, diet quality, and physical activity. DESIGN: This cross-sectional study included one-on-one interviews with fathers (n=150) of preschool-aged children conducted by a trained interviewer (a registered dietitian nutritionist). PARTICIPANTS: To be eligible, biological fathers (n=150) of preschool-aged children (aged 3 to 5 years) were required to regularly eat at least one meal per week with their child and be able to read or speak English. They could be of any race, ethnicity, income, or education level. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: During the interview, diet quality was assessed using a single 24-hour recall and the Healthy Eating Index-2010. Physical activity was assessed using the Pre-Physical Activity Questionnaire. Height and weight for each father and child were also measured. BMI and BMI z scores were calculated for fathers and children, respectively. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Linear regression was used to test relationships between fathers' and children's body weight, diet quality, and physical activity while controlling for income level, race, and ethnicity. RESULTS: Overall, the findings revealed that there were significant, positive relationships between father-child weight status (ß=.03; P=0.05), overall diet quality (ß=.39; P<0.0001), and weekday (ß=.27; P=0.002) and weekend (ß=.62; P=0.001) vigorous physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that there are relationships between fathers' and children's BMI z score, dietary intake, and physical activity level. Future research should consider the inclusion of fathers in obesity prevention programs for young children.

Association of fathers' feeding practices and feeding style on preschool age children's diet quality, eating behavior and body mass index.

The associations of parental feeding practices and feeding style with childhood obesity have gained more attention in the literature recently; however, fathers are rarely included within these studies. The aim of this research was to determine the relationship of paternal feeding practices on child diet quality, weight status, and eating behavior, and the moderating effect of paternal feeding style on these relationships in preschool age children. This study included a one-time, one-on-one interview with biological fathers of preschoolers (n = 150) to assess feeding practices (Child Feeding Questionnaire), feeding style (Caregiver Feeding Style Questionnaire), child eating behaviors (Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire), and diet quality (24 hour recall, Healthy Eating Index). Height and weight for each father and child were also measured and Body Mass Index (BMI) or BMI z-score calculated. Linear regression was used to test the relationship between paternal feeding practices, style and child diet quality and/or body weight. Overall, the findings revealed that a father's feeding practices and feeding style are not associated with children's diet quality or weight status. However, child eating behaviors are associated with child BMI z-score and these relationships are moderated by paternal feeding practices. For example, child satiety responsiveness is inversely (ß = -.421, p = 0.031) associated with child BMI z-score only if paternal restriction scores are high. This relationship is not significant when paternal restriction scores are low (ß = -.200, p = 0.448). These results suggest that some child appetitive traits may be related to child weight status when exposed to certain paternal feeding practices. Future studies should consider the inclusion of fathers as their feeding practices and feeding style may be related to a child's eating behavior.

An updated and expanded meta-analysis of nonresident fathering and child well-being.

Since Amato and Gilbreth's (1999) meta-analysis of nonresident father involvement and child well-being, nonmarital childbirths and nonresident father involvement both have increased. The unknown implications of such changes motivated the present study, a meta-analytic review of 52 studies of nonresident father involvement and child well-being. Consistent with Amato and Gilbreth, we found that positive forms of involvement were associated with benefits for children, with a small but statistically significant effect size. Amounts of father-child contact and financial provision, however, were not associated with child well-being. Going beyond Amato and Gilbreth, we analyzed the associations between different types of fathering and overall child well-being, and between overall father involvement and different types of child well-being. We found that nonresident father involvement was most strongly associated with children's social well-being and also was associated with children's emotional well-being, academic achievement, and behavioral adjustment. The forms of father involvement most strongly associated with child well-being were involvement in child-related activities, having positive father-child relationships, and engaging in multiple forms of involvement. Moderator analyses demonstrated variation in effect sizes based on both study characteristics and demographic variables. We discuss the implications of these findings for policy and practice.